1.2 Violin acoustics

It has been known for a long time that the thickness of the wood and its physical qualities govern the sound of a stringed instrument such as the violin. The sound and tone of the violin is determined by how the belly and back plates of the violin behave acoustically, according to modes or schemes of movement determined by German physicist Ernst ChladniErnst Florenz Friedrich Chladni ( November 30, 1756 April 3, 1827) was a German physicist. Chladni was born in Wittenberg. His work on vibrating plates and the calculation of the speed of sound for different gases made him the founder of acoustics. The pa. Patterns of the nodes (places of no movement) made by sand sprinkled on the plates with the plate vibrated at certain frequencies are called "Chladni patterns", and are often used by luthiers to verify their work before assembling the instrument. A scientific explanation includes a discussion of how the properties of the wood determines where the nodes occur, whether the plates move with end or diagonally opposite points rising together or in various mixed modes.

1.3 Sizes

Children learning the violin often use 'quarter', 'third', 'half', or 'three-quarter' sized violins. In all meaningful parts, they are scaled but otherwise identical to full-sized instruments.

Sometimes, the finger board is inlayed or otherwise marked with finger positions; however, these are not a fretA fret is a raised marker on the neck of a stringed instrument, typically fixed in place and made of hard-wearing material such as metal. They divide the neck into fixed segments, relating to a musical framework. For example, on instruments such as mandol as with a guitar or other stringed instrument. This is also often achieved by applying a piece of adhesive tape across the finger board in several places.

2 Playing the violin

The violin is played by using the right hand to draw the bow at right angles across one of the strings, near the bridge, causing the string to vibrate. Pitch is controlled by selecting the string that the bow contacts (by altering the vertical angle of the bow), and by regulating the sounding length of that string by pressing it down onto the fingerboard with one of the fingers of the left hand.

2.1 Fingering and positions

The placement of the fingers on the strings invokes no physical aid like frets; the player must achieve the correct position from skill alone, or else the instrument will sound out of tune. Violin players practice long hours partly to train their fingers to land in the right places, and partly to cultivate the ability to correct the pitch very rapidly as it is played.

The fingers are conventionally numbered "first" (index) through "fourth" (little finger). The digits 1-4 sometimes appear over the notes in violin music, especially in instructional editions, to indicate the finger to be used.

For the beginning player, the highest note available on a violin is made by pressing the fourth finger down on the E-string, sounding a B. However this is only the highest note in so-called first position, which is taught to beginners first. A higher note can be achieved by sliding the hand up the neck of the violin (towards the player's face) and pressing the fingers down at this new position. Thus, for example, in first position, the first finger placed on the E string gives an F#. Pressing the first finger instead on a G is called second position. Third position is achieved when the first finger presses down on an A, and so on. The upper limit of the violin's range is largely determined by the skill of the player. A good player can easily play more than two octaves on a single string, and four octaves on the instrument as a whole.

Violinists often change positions on the lower strings even though this seems unnecessary. Often, this is done to handle a musical passage which would otherwise require fast switching of strings. It is also done to produce a particular timbre: a violin note will sound different depending on what string is used to play it.

2.2 Open strings

A special timbre results from playing a note without touching its string with a finger, thus sounding the lowest note on that string. Such a note is said to played on an open string. Open string notes (G, D, A, E) have a very distinct sound resulting from absence of the damping action of a finger, and from the fact that vibrato (see below) is impossible. Other than low G (which can be played in no other way), open strings are usually selected for special effects.

One striking effect that employs open strings is bariolage. Here, the player fingers the same note of an open string (necessarily D, A, or E) on the immediately lower string, then moves the bow with a rapid snake-like motion that causes it to touch the fingered string and the open string alternatingly. The same pitch is thus sounded, but the different timbres of an open string vs. a fingered string produce an audible rhythmic pulsation. Bariolage was a favorite device of Joseph Haydn, who used it for example in his string quartet Opus 50 no. 6, and in the "Farewell" Symphony.

Playing two open strings simultaneously (that is, double stopped; see below) produces a bagpipe-like drone, often used by composers in imitation of folk music.

2.3 Double-stopping

Double stopping is playing two strings simultaneously, producing a chord. This is much harder than normal single-string playing as more than one finger has to be accurately placed on two different strings simultaneously. Sometimes moving to a higher position is necessary in order for it to be physically possible for the fingers to be placed in the correct places. Double stopping is also used to mean playing on three or all four strings at once, although such practices are more properly called triple or quadruple stopping. Collectively, double, triple and quadruple stopping is called multiple stopping.

See Double stop for general information about the techniques of double stopping and bowing.

2.4 Pizzicato

When a note is marked pizzicato in the written music, it is played by plucking the string with a finger rather than with the bow. For details of how pizzicato notes are played, see the Wikipedia article " Pizzicato".

2.5 Vibrato

Vibrato is a very common device used by violinists which causes the pitch of a note to vary up and down quickly. This is achieved by moving the finger pressing on the string slightly forwards and backwards. Vibrato is often perceived to create a more emotional sound, and it is employed heavily in music of the Romantic era. There are several different styles of vibrato ranging from the use of just the fingers, to the use of the wrist or even the whole forearm. These produce different effects and are favoured by different players for different styles of music. Some styles of music use little or no vibrato at all.

It is often thought that vibrato can partially disguise an out of tune note, the intuitive idea being that the ear should not be able track pitch as accurately when it is moving up and down. However, recent experimental work finds no such effect: the human ear detects the mean frequency of a vibrato note just as accurately as it detects a non-undulating pitch. It is not necessarily the case that results obtained under careful experimental conditions will carry over to real-life playing, and there is at least some evidence that vibrato may be able to disguise mistuning at faster tempos. Nevertheless, it now appears that individuals learning to play the violin are well advised never to suppose that using vibrato will help them with their pitch problems. In fact, music students are taught that unless marked in music, vibrato is assumed and even mandatory.

2.6 Harmonics

Just touching the string with a finger and not pressing down can create harmonics. This means that instead of the normal solid tone a wispy-sounding note of a higher pitch is heard. This is caused by the light finger blocking the string's fundamental; the string must be touched exactly at a "node", an even division of the string, for example exactly half-way along the length of the string, or exactly one-third along the length of the string. When one touches the node at one of these points, the string vibrates in parts: either in halves or thirds, in these two examples. The pitch produced in these two cases will be an octave higher in the case of halves, and an octave and a fifth higher in the case of the string vibrating in thirds. This way, different members of the string's harmonic series are allowed to sound. If the pressure on the string is too deep, the harmonic will not sound, and a scratchy, unclear sound will resonate, so it is essential to touch the node lightly.

Harmonics are marked in music with a little circle above the note that determines the pitch of the harmonic. There are two types of harmonics: natural harmonics and artificial harmonics.

Natural harmonics are the type of harmonic described in the first paragraph of this section, and are achieved by simply touching the string with one finger at a node point. This is a relatively easy technique, and can be done by most beginner to intermediate students.

Artificial harmonics, however, are much more difficult. They requires pressing down a finger on one string (for example, first finger on the D string on the note "E"), and having another finger just touching the string a fourth higher, in this case on the position of the note "A". When the violinist stops the string with the first finger, and touches it lightly with the fourth finger in this way, the node one-fourth of the way along the string is touched, and the string will vibrate in four parts, sounding a tone two octaves above the note that is stopped (in this case, E). The distance between the two fingers must be extremely accurate, or else the harmonic will not sound. In addition, the pressure from the bow and the two fingers must be exactly right or it will not sound.

The "harmonic finger" can also touch at a major third above the pressed note, or a fifth higher. These harmonics are less commonly used because they are even more difficult to make sound well. In the case of the major third, the harmonic is higher in the overtone series, and does not speak as readily; in the case of the fifth, the stretch is greater than is comfortable for many violinists. The sounding pitch of the major third harmonic is two octaves and a major third above the lower note, and in the case of the fifth, it is an octave and a fifth above the lower note.

Traditional notation of artificial harmonics uses two notes on one stem: the lower note employs a round note-head representing where the string is strongly stopped with the first finger, and the upper note uses an open diamond note-head representing where the string is lightly touched with the fourth finger.

Elaborate passages in artificial harmonics can be found in virtuoso violin literature, especially of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

2.7 The mute

The tone of the violin can also be altered by attaching a small rubber device called a mute to the bridge of the instrument usually between the middle two strings (D and A). This stops the bridge itself from vibrating as much, and causes a more mellow tone, with fewer audible harmonics above the note being played. It is often used for practice purposes to lower sound, and often in performances for a desired dulled effect.

2.8 Bowing techniques

The violin produces louder notes when the player either moves the bow faster or pushes down harder on the string. The two methods are not equivalent, because they produce different timbres; pressing down on the string tends to produce a harsher, more intense sound.

The location where the bow intersects the string also influences timbre. Playing close to the bridge (sul ponticello) gives a more intense sound than usual, emphasizing the higher harmonics; and playing with the bow over the end of the fingerboard (sul tasto) makes for a delicate, ethereal sound, emphasizing the fundamental frequency.

Occasionally the strings are struck with the back of the bow ( col legno). This gives a much more percussive sound, and is most effective when employed by a full orchestral violin section, since it produces little volume.

A second, more modern percussive technique is called the "chop," in which the hair near the bottom of the bow is struck against the strings. It is used by some jazz musicians, including the Turtle Island String Quartet.

See also: How to play the violin

3 Tuning

Violins are tuned by twisting the pegs in the scroll, around which the strings are wrapped. The A string is tuned first, typically to 440 Hz (see Pitch (music)). The other strings are then tuned to it in intervals of perfect fifths using double-stopping. Some violins also have adjustors (also called fine tuners). These permit the tension of the string to be adjusted by rotating a small knob. Such tuning is generally easier than using the pegs, and adjustors are usually recommended for younger players. Adjustors work best, and are most useful, with higher tension metal strings. It is very common to use one on the E-string even if the others are not equipped with them.

Small tuning adjustments can also be made by stretching a string with the hand.

The tuning G-D-A-E is used for the great majority of all violin music. However, other tunings are occasionally employed (for example, tuning the G string up to A), both in classical music (where the technique is known as scordatura) and in some folk styles.

4 Maintenance

Violinists carry replacement strings with their instruments to have one available in case a string breaks. All four replacement strings must be included, since they differ in thickness. Even the strings which do not break are usually replaced after about a year of use. The cost of strings varies, and the quality of the strings strongly influences the timbre of the sound produced.

It is said that Niccolo Paganini purposefully weakened some of his strings so that in performance they would snap. He would then play the rest of the piece on the remaining strings, sometimes going into remarkably high positions in order to impress the audience.

In the course of playing the violin, hairs are often lost from the bow, making it necessary to have it rehaired periodically.

The violin itself usually does not require maintenance, but it should be occasionally checked by a technician and is regularly cleaned with a gentle polish. Also, for the non-varnished wood such as the ebony on the fingerboard, or the wood on the neck, and the strings should be rubbed with a swab dipped in rubbing alcohol to eliminate grime and debris.

For the bow, the only real maintenance is re-hairing the bow, or replacing the old horse hair, or in cases polyester, with new ones. Other than that, sometimes the knob to tighten and loosen the bow is lubricated at times.

5 Violin history

The violin first emerged in northern Italy in the early 16th century. While no instruments from the first decades of the century survive, there are several representations in paintings; some of the early instruments have only three strings. Most likely the first makers of violins borrowed from three different types of current instruments: the rebec, in use since the 10th century (itself derived from the Arab rebab , the Renaissance fiddle, and the lira da braccio . The earliest explicit description of the instrument, including its tuning, was in the Epitome musical by Jambe de Fer, published in Lyons in 1556. By this time the violin had already begun to spread throughout Europe.

The oldest surviving violin, dated inside, is the "Charles IX" by Andrea Amati , made in Cremona in 1564.

The most famous violin makers, called luthiers, in Cremona between the late 16th century and the 18th century included:

• Amati family of Italian violin makers
• Guarneri family of Italian violin makers
• Stradivari family of Italian violin makers

5.1 The violin in classical music

Since the Baroque era the violin has been one of the most important of all instruments in classical music, for several reasons. The tone of the violin stands out above other instruments, making it appropriate for playing a melody line. In the hands of a good player, the violin is extremely agile, and can execute rapid and difficult sequences of notes. Indeed, the violin seems to lend itself to virtuosity more than any other instrument (its only plausible rival is the piano), and top violinists have amazed their audiences with their wizardry since the 17th century.

The violin is also considered a very expressive instrument, which is often felt to approximate the human voice. This may be due to the possibility of vibrato and of slight expressive adjustments in pitch and timbre.

Violins make up a large part of an orchestra, and are usually divided into two sections, known as the first and second violins. Composers often assign the melody to the first violins (who are often given more technically difficult music), while second violins usually play harmony. A string quartet similarly has parts for first and second violins, as well as a viola part, and a bass instrument, such as the cello or the bass.

5.2 The violin in folk music

Like many other instruments of classical music, the violin descends from remote ancestors, cruder in form, that were used for folk music. Following a stage of intensive development in the late Renaissance, largely in Italy, the violin had improved (in volume, tone, and agility), to the point that it not only became a very important instrument in art music, but proved highly appealing to folk musicians as well. As a folk instrument, the violin ultimately spread very widely, sometimes displacing earlier bowed instruments, and ethnomusicologists have observed its use in many locations throughout Europe, Asia, and the Americas.

In many traditions of folk music, the tunes are not written but are memorized by successive generations of musicians and passed on in both informal and formal contexts.

See the immediately following section on the fiddle for more information.

6 The Fiddle

When played as a folk instrument, the violin is ordinarily referred to in English as a fiddle.

One very slight difference between fiddle and violin occurs in American (e.g., bluegrass and old-time music) fiddling: the bridge is shaved down so that it is less curved. This makes it easier to play chords.

Most musicians agree that the technical difference between a violin and a fiddle is the bridge. Most classical violinists prefer rounded bridges that allow them to more easily articulate the notes which have better clarity. Fiddlers often prefer flatter bridges that allow the playing of double notes and shuffles. In practice, most instruments are constructed with a rounded bridge to better accommodate the shape of the fingerboard.

Historically, the word fiddle also referred to a predecessor of today's violin. Like the violin, it tended to have 4 strings, but came in a variety of shapes and sizes. Another series of instruments which contributed to the development of the modern fiddle was the viol, which was played while held between the legs, and has a fretted fingerboard.

6.1 Fiddle styles

To a greater extent than classical violin playing, fiddle playing is characterized by a huge variety of ethnic or folk music traditions, each of which has its own distinctive sound, including, but not limited to:

• Balkan Music & Tanchaz (Transilvainian) or Romanian Music
• Irish fiddling (with many distinct styles, including, for example, the Donegal fiddle tradition)
• Scottish fiddling
• English fiddling
• American fiddling (including Old Time fiddling, New England style Fiddling, Cajun fiddling, Texas style fiddling, Contest Fiddling, Bluegrass fiddling, and other related traditions)
• Canadian fiddling (including Cape Breton fiddling, where it's more commonly called Cape Breton Violin Music ; Québécois fiddling, and others)
• Norwegian fiddling (including Hardanger fiddling)
• Swedish fiddling
• Finnish fiddling
• French fiddling (including a rich Breton fiddling tradition)

6.2 Fiddle players

English folk fiddle players include Dave Swarbrick and Ric Sanders , both of whom have been members of Fairport Convention, and the "darling" of the new generation of English folk musicians Eliza Carthy.

7 Virtuosi

See violinist.

8 Violin makers

See Luthiers.

9 Related instruments

For instruments related to the violin, see String instruments.

10 Further reading

• Latin Violin, by Sam Bardfeld, BooksEnthsiast.com.
• The Contemporary Violin: ExtENDed Performance Techniques, by Patricia and Allen Strange, BooksEnthsiast.com.

11 External links

• TheViolinSite.com - Violin practice methods and other useful information
• Violin Acoustics
• Anatomy of a violin
• Violin MP3.com

---

"Violin" is a track from They Might Be Giants' 2002 album No!.

String instruments

<Hide>