Snipers In Warfare Police Snipers Sniper Training

The traditional definition of a sniper is an infantry soldier especially skilled in field craft and marksmanship who stalks and kills selected enemy with a single aimed rifle shot.

The word originates from the snipe, a game bird difficult for hunters to sneak up on.

In the last few decades the term 'sniper' has been used rather loosely, especially by the media in association with police precision riflemen, those responsible for assassination, any shooting from all but the shortest range in war and any criminal equipped with a rifle in a civil context. This has rather expanded the general understanding of the meaning of the term. It has also given the term 'sniper' distinctly pejorative connotations. This explains the increasing use of alternative terms, especially for police snipers such as counter-sniper, precision marksman, tactical marksman, sharpshooter and precision shooter.

1 Snipers in warfare

Different countries have different military doctrines regarding snipers in Military units, settings, and tactics. Generally, a sniper's goal in warfare is to reduce the enemy's ability to fight by carefully striking a very few, high value targets.

Russian military doctrine uses snipers for long-distance suppressive fire and targets of opportunity, especially leaders. During World War II the Soviets found that military organizations find it hard to replace experienced non-commissioned officers and field officers in a war. They also found that the more expensive and delicate sniper rifles could match the cost-effectiveness of a cheaper assault rifle given good personnel selection, training, and adherence to doctrine. Additionally, they found that sniper duties fit women well, since good snipers are patient, careful, deliberate, can avoid hand-to-hand combat , and need higher levels of aerobic conditioning than other troops.

Military snipers from the U.S., U.K. and derived doctrines are typically deployed in two-man teams consisting of a shooter and spotter; the spotter is usually the more experienced of the two.

Typical sniper missions include reconnaissance or scouting and surveillance, anti-sniper, killing enemy commanders, selecting targets of opportunity, and even anti- materielMateriel (from the French for material) is the equipment and supplies in Military and commercial supply chain management. In a military context, materiel relates to the specific needs of an army to complete a specific mission. The term is also often used tasks (destruction of military equipment), which tend to require use of rifles in the larger calibres such as .50 BMG and .338 Lapua. Snipers have of late been increasingly demonstrated as useful by U.S. and U.K. forces in the recent Iraq campaign in a fire support role to cover the movement of infantry, especially in urban areas.

The current record for longest range sniper kill is 2,430 metreFor other uses of "metre" and "meter", see Metre (disambiguation). The metre is the basic unit of length in the International System of Units (SI: Systeme International d'Unites). It is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in absolute vacus (7,972 ft), reportedly accomplished by a CanadianCanada historically the Dominion of Canada is the second-largest, and northernmost, country in the world. It is a decentralized federation of 10 provinces and 3 territories, governed as a constitutional monarchy, and formed in 1867 through an act of Confe sniper in 20022002 is a common year starting on Tuesday (see link for calendar). 2002 was the first palindromic year since 1991 and the last until 2112. 2002 was also designated: International Year of Ecotourism and Mountains National Science Year in the United Kingdom, during the invasion of AfghanistanThe United States, with support from the United Kingdom, Australia and the Northern Alliance, invaded Afghanistan in October 2001 as part of its " War on Terrorism" campaign. The military campaign, led by U. general Tommy Franks, was initially dubbed Oper, using a .50 BMG McMillan bolt-action rifle. This meant that the round had a flight time of four seconds, and a drop of 44.5 mFor other uses of "metre" and "meter", see Metre (disambiguation). The metre is the basic unit of length in the International System of Units (SI: Systeme International d'Unites). It is defined as the length of the path travelled by light in absolute vacu (146 ft). The previous record was held by Carlos Hathcock, achieved during the Vietnam War, at a distance of 2,250 m.

Such a shot cannot be taken in haste. By contrast, much of the U.S./Coalition urban sniping in support of operations in Iraq is at much shorter ranges, although, in one notable incident on April 3 2003, a two man team of Royal Marines armed with L96 sniper rifles each killed at a range of about 860 m with shots which curved 17 m (56 ft) in the air.

In the Bosnian War, and for much of the Siege of Beirut , the term sniper was used to refer to what were generally ill-trained soldiers who terrorized civilians. During the Siege of Sarajevo, the main street of the city became known as "Sniper Alley".

In urban combat against the Soviet tank forces, some opposing forces successfully massed groups of three-person teams: a sniper, a soldier with an assault rifle or a machine gun, and a third with an antitank weapon such as a RPG. These swarms of small units were reported to be quite effective, though they sustained high casualties.

2 Police snipers

Police forces typically deploy snipers in hostage scenarios. They are trained to shoot only as a last resort, when there is a direct threat to life from a felon. Police snipers typically operate at much shorter ranges than military snipers, generally under 100 metres and sometimes even less than 50 metres. Police snipers do not generally attempt to shoot to incapacitate; when they shoot, they shoot to kill, though there have been some notable exceptions with varying success.

In peacetime, police snipers like those of the FBI's Critical Intervention Resources Group (e.g. the Hostage Rescue Team) typically serve longer in the role, receive more training, and get more operational experience than military snipers.

Peacetime use of police snipers for firefighting purposes is common. Compressed gas bottles used for welding can get too hot in a garage or factory fire and water cooling may not be sufficient to reverse the chemical reaction going on inside. The vessel will explode with devastating effect. To prevent this, two or three police snipers will fire a dozen shots in a few seconds to rip the vessel open and let the gases out. See:

3 Sniper training

While good equipment is helpful, it is training which makes the sniper. Military sniper training tries to teach a high degree of proficiency in camouflage and concealment, stalking and observation as well as precision marksmanship under wide operational conditions.

Snipers are generally volunteers accepted for sniper training on the basis of their aptitude as perceived by their commanders. Sniper trainees typically shoot a couple thousand rounds over a number of weeks. The training teaches core skills of camouflage, concealment, moving tactically over terrain, observation and rifle-shooting under varying conditions. Military snipers may be trained as FACs (Forward Air Controllers) to direct military air strikes, FOOs (Forward Observation Officers) in artillery target indication and as mortar fire controllers (MFCs).

Snipers are trained to squeeze the trigger straight back with the ball of their finger, to avoid jerking the gun sideways. The most accurate position is prone, with a bipod supporting the barrel, and the stock's cheek-piece against the cheek. Sometimes a sling is wrapped around the weak arm to reduce stock movement. Some doctrines may train a sniper to shoot between breaths or even between heartbeats to minimize barrel motion.

The range to the target is measured or estimated as precisely as conditions permit. Laser rangefinders may be used. At longer ranges, the bullet drop is estimated from a chart which may be memorised or taped to the rifle. The sights are adjusted accordingly. Shooting uphill or downhill can require more adjustment, either by "holding off" by eye, or "dialing in" to the scope. The slant of visible convections near the ground can be used to estimate crosswinds, and correct the point of aim. The point of aim is in front of moving targets. Anticipating the behavior of the target helps place the shot.

4 Sniper equipment

4.1 Sniper rifles

Good equipment is helpful, but does not substitute for careful selection of personnel and thorough training. A military sniper from a selective, highly trained formation, equipped with just a hunting rifle would be far more effective than most hunters would be, if equipped with an expensive, precision sniper rifle.

Historic military sniper rifles were almost the standard service rifle of the country in question. They included the German Mauser K98, U.S. Springfield M1 Garand, Soviet Mosin-Nagant and British Lee Enfield No 4.

These were selected because they were the more accurate models of those in service. They might add a scope or bipod. The standard open or 'iron' sights were usually left as a back-up in case the optical sight should fog or break.

Modern sniper rifles are specially-built for the purpose. The critical goal is reliable placement of the first shot within one minute of arc. Most include special features for this purpose. These can include:

Rifles are built to tight tolerances. In particular, the headspace is as small as possible.
The barrel is precise. The production method is less important. Good barrels' rifling can be cut with a lathe or swaged with a button. Some barrels have metallurgical treatments to reduce their internal strains, and thus the amount they bend or twist with temperature.
A "free-floating barrel" is often used. The barrel is attached to the rifle at a single point, screwed into the action, not touching the forearm, "front furniture" or sling. This makes the first shot more repeatable since it helps isolate the barrel from outside mechanical and thermal effects.
The action is affixed carefully to the stock. Often a plastic "bedding" compound is used. It increases the rifles' repeatability by reducing tolerances between the stock and action. Some engineers claim it raises the mechanical resonant frequency of the rifle, reducing the wavelength of resonances, and thus the total error from them.
Most sniper rifles have heavy barrels to increase the resonant frequency (again) and slow the rate of heating, which reduces thermal distortion of the barrel as more rounds are shot. This is why the M24_SWS Bolt-Action Sniper Rifle is actually heavier than the older M21 Semiautomatic Sniper Rifle.
The end of the barrel may be counter-sunk a few millimeters to protect the critical exit-end of the rifling.
The trigger sears may be polished so the trigger releases crisply. This reduces the shooter's tendency to jerk the trigger, and move the point of aim. A good trigger lets off or 'breaks' cleanly without any 'creep.' It is said to feel like snapping a glass rod.
A low-mass (often titanium) hammer and pin reduce the time between the trigger pull and the primer ignition. This reduces the distance that a human being's irreducible quiver can move the point of aim.
Military sniper rifles tend to have longer barrels of around 300 mm to allow the cartridge propellant to fully burn and get the fastest bullet velocity for a given charge. Some police sniper rifles have shorter barrels to make them easier to handle. The shorter ranges at which police operate permit lower bullet velocities.

Perhaps the three best-known sniper rifles in current service are the US Army's M21, the U.S. Marine Corps' M40 and the British Accuracy International L96 and AW. The M24 SWS and M40 are precision rifles built based upon the civilian Remington 700 bolt action rifle, the best selling bolt-action in North America and dating back to 1962. The British L96 / AW was designed by Malcolm Cooper , a British civilian Olympic shootist.

Sniper rifles' sights are almost always telescopic. The reticle of the scope often contains markings other than the cross-hairs found in hunting rifle scopes. These markings are to assist in range estimation by corresponding to standard objects at different ranges; the extra marks assist "aiming off" for windage and "holding off" for long range shooting.

Sniper rifles' scopes rarely magnify more than 11x; the AW in British service has a fixed magnification of 10.5x. Modern sniper rifles often forgo open sights, relying entirely on the scope. Examples include the U.S M21 and M40. The British AW is still equipped with auxiliary open sights. Some scopes have fixed magnification as low as 3x. Police sniper rifles often have an adjustable zoom scope, as much police work is done at close range and a high magnification scope restricts the field of view.

Some sniper equipment includes an image intensifying adapter to convert the normal scope for night work.

Semi-automatic sniper rifles are currently less common than bolt-action rifles, with the notable exception of the Russian Dragunov in 7.62x54 (the old Soviet rimmed battle rifle cartridge originally chambered in the Mosin-Nagant). The Dragunov is relatively common in the sphere of influence of the former Eastern Block. The Dragunov in 7.62x54 is not as precise as the M21, M40 or AW. A precision semi-automatic rifle is expensive and most sniping doctrines make the semi-automatic function superfluous. Precision semi-automatic sniper rifles exist for specialised applications, such as the Heckler and Koch PSG1 and Knight Armaments SR25M.

A bipod helps one to achieve the best accuracy. It helps one fire from a prone position. It also helps one hold a firing position for extended periods. Many police and military sniper rifles come equipped with an adjustable bipod.

Since 1985, some services have adopted sniper rifles that fire rounds larger or more powerful than a standard battle rifle's. Such rifles are used for anti-materiel missions and for extreme long range. US doctrines call "anti-material" roles hard target interdiction .

They are big, heavy, cumbersome, very loud and expensive. In many sniping missions these would be a disadvantage, but these big rifles do have their tactical niche.

Such rifles include the Barrett M82A1 chambered in the .50 BMG (Browning Machine Gun) cartridge. This cartridge generates about six times the energy of a 7.62 x 51 cartridge (NATO Std). Splitting the difference between the huge .50 BMG and the 7.62 x 51 in the power stakes are the .338 Lapua and .408 Chey-Tac. A new Sniper rifle undergoing testing is the Barrett 25mm XM109 rifle, firing a high-Explosive 25mm round.

4.2 Ammunition

Most snipers are issued match-grade military ammunition.

Though target shooters often assemble their own ammunition from components to more precisely control the load and tune it to the specific rifle and task, this is practically unknown in military and police circles.

4.3 Camouflage

Good camouflage, combined with movement discipline, is what makes snipers so hard to see and resist.

The basic camouflage item of a working sniper is a combination of cover and shelter, usually a poncho or shelter-half, preferably with attachable insulation and internal waterproofing.

The glint of the scope's optics is the only part of a sniper that cannot be camouflaged, but shine can be reduced by using a piece of fabric or a metal mesh over the scope. Snipers should avoid anything that glints or clanks, including glasses and white faces.

Snipers against well-equipped forces must camouflage themselves in Infrared (or IR). They use plastic foil blankets or material with a thin layer of evaporated aluminum to reflect the IR. Originally these were thermal blankets, covered with local foliage or material. The foliage or material is taken from at least 275 m (300 yards) away so the sniping position's natural cover is undisturbed.

4.3.1 Tick suit

The best-equipped snipers use a "Tick" suit. This consists of IR-proof material that hangs in folds over the sniper, breaking up the outline on a scope. The outer layers of a tick suit resemble a ghillie suit, camouflaging the sniper in visible light.

4.3.2 Ghillie suit

Snipers with extreme requirements for infiltration and camouflage use a ghillie suit, a suit constructed of rough burlap flaps attached to a net poncho. Ghillie suits are more commonly built with dyed jute twine. The ghillie suit was originally developed by Scottish deer hunters as a portable hunting blind . US Army Ghillie suits are often built using a pilot's flightsuit or some other one-piece coverall as the base. You can also use standard BDUs. The next step would be to sew fish netting over the desired areas of the BDU to be camouflaged. Use unscented dental floss and sew each knot of the netting to the fabric. Then apply a drop of Shoe Goo to each knot for strength. Then apply the desired jute to the netting by tying groups of 3-4 strands of a color to the netting with simple knots, skipping sections to be filled in with other colors.

A ghillie suit is usually prepared by assembling it, beating it, dragging it behind a car, and then rolling it in cow manure or burying it in mud and then letting it ferment. This makes it very much like wearable humus. As with the foil blankets mentioned above, a ghillie suit that closely matches the actual terrain of the zone of operation will stand out less, so elements of that general environment (local foliage or other matter) may also be included in the netting.

5 Sniper Tactics

At distances over 275 m (300 yards), snipers usually attempt body shots, aiming at the chest and depending on tissue damage, organ trauma and blood loss to make the kill. At lesser distances, snipers may attempt head shots to ensure the kill.

In instant-death hostage situations, police snipers shoot for the cerebellum, a part of the brain that controls voluntary movement, that lies at the base of the skull. Some wound ballistics and neurological researchers have argued that severing the spinal cord at about the second cervical vertebra is what is actually achieved, usually having the same effect of preventing voluntary motor activity , but the debate on the matter remains largely academic at the present date.

To perform civil pacification, sniper-suppression, and intelligence a sniper or pair of snipers will locate themselves in a high, concealed redoubt. They will use binoculars or a telescope to identify targets, and a radio to provide intelligence.

Since most kills in modern warfare are by crew-served weapons, reconnaissance is one of the most effective uses of snipers. They use their aerobic conditioning, infiltration skills and excellent long-distance observation equipment and tactics to approach and observe the enemy. In this role, their rules of engagement let them engage only high-value targets of opportunity.

A sniper identifies targets by their appearance and behavior. Snipers shoot people who are in high-rank uniforms, or who talk to radiomen, or who sit as passengers in a car, or who have military servants, or who talk and move their position more frequently. If possible, snipers shoot in descending order by rank, or if rank is unavailable, they shoot to disrupt communications.

Snipers use deception, in the form of camouflage, unusual angles of approach, and frequent, often slow movement to prevent accurate counter-attacks. Some snipers are able to shoot an observant target from less than 90 m (100 yards), while the target is searching for them, without being seen.

To perform suppressive fire to cover a retreat, a sniper positions himself, hidden, with a view to a large open space. When a pair of enemy squads attempts a crossing, the sniper disables one person, preferably a leader. Most often this is a hip shot, possibly followed by a jaw shot to prevent effective instruction. When the squad attempts a rescue, the sniper uses rapid fire, aiming for the trunks of enemy soldiers to kill as many as possible. A prudent sniper leaves the area at this point, anticipating the flanking attack that normally follows. A brave or desperate sniper may ambush one of the flanks, and if possible, will move outside the flank to do so.

To demoralize enemy troops, snipers can follow predictable patterns. During the Cuban revolutionary war, the 26th of July Movement always killed the foremost man in a group of Batista's soldiers. Realizing this, none of them would walk first, as it was suicidal. This effectively decreased the army's willingness to search for rebel bases in the mountains.

With heavy .50 calibre rifles, snipers can shoot turbine disks of parked jet fighters, missile guidance packages, expensive optics, or the bearings, tubes or wave guides of radar sets. Snipers on hill-tops can often shoot down scout helicopters lurking below a ridge-line. Similarly, snipers may shoot locks or hinges instead of using a door-opening charge.

6 Anti-sniper tactics

To defend against sniper attacks, doctrine and equipment need to prevent observable "leadership" behaviors and signs. Insignia should be low-observable camouflage colors on camouflage, battle-dress identical for all ranks, military servants and rank-based luxuries (like saluting) avoided in forward areas, and commands and instruction should be given in stealthy ways.

Valuable assets should be parked in sand-bagged redoubts until they are launched, a prudent tactic anyway to prevent damage from fragments.

The most effective response to a sniper is a flanking pincer by a pair of squads, through cover, or at least concealment, driving the sniper toward the group containing the targets. This decreases the chances that the sniper will find a stealthy, speedy escape route.

Another effective tactic is to use a sniper to kill a sniper. This often results in a sniper duel. Usually, the most highly trained sniper wins. The duel effectively distracts the sniper from his mission. This usually favors U.S.-style elite sniper forces.

7 Attitude to snipers

Generally snipers are isolated even from soldiers of their own army by the dislike of the ordinary infantry for this type of combat. During World War II, captured snipers were often shot out-of-hand by their captors.

A commonly held view is that snipers must have a psychopathic or sociopathic personality in order to function efficiently. This view is not shared by military experts as dysfunctional personalities are likely to be unreliable in high-stress combat situations. Most people will also agree that training a mentally ill person into a very highly trained covert killer is a bad idea both in peacetime and wartime (the sniper will be out on missions only a small percentage of their time in the theater of operations).

Snipers do, however, require a different type of psyche to the average soldier – they must be comfortable being alone for long periods, be very self-reliant, and be comfortable with doing 'cold-blooded' kills – attributes that not every soldier will share.

8 Snipers outside warfare

The use of sniping as means of murder has been immortalised by a number of sensational U.S murders, including the Austin sniper incident of 1966, the John F. Kennedy assassination, and the Washington sniper serial murders of late 2002. However, these incidents usually do not involve the range or skill of military snipers.

Sniping has also been used by terrorists, for example in the Northern Ireland troubles, where in the early seventies a number of soldiers were shot by concealed riflemen, some at considerable range. There were also a few instances in the early '90s of British soldiers being shot with .50 calibre Barrett rifles.

9 Sniper versus Sharpshooter or Marksman

Some doctrines distinguish a "sniper" from a " sharpshooter" or " designated marksman". While snipers are intensively trained to master field craft and camouflage, these skills are not required for sharpshooters. Snipers often perform valuable reconnaissance and have a psychological impact on the enemy. A sharpshooter's role is mainly to extend the reach of the squad to which he is attached.

These differences in role and training affect doctrines and equipment.

Snipers rely almost exclusively on stealthy bolt-action rifles while a sharpshooter can effectively utilize a faster-firing, but more conspicuous semi-automatic rifle. In some military doctrines, a two-man sniper team consists of a designated marksman who uses a bolt-action rifle, and a sniper support (usually the spotter) who uses a semiautomatic sniper rifle, or at times an assault rifle or carbine.

A sniper's intensive training, forward placement and surveillance duties make the role more strategic than a squad-level sharpshooter. Thus, sharpshooters are often attached at the squad level while snipers are often attached at higher levels such as battalion.

10 Snipers in history

Even before firearms were available, there have been soldiers, such as archers, specially trained as elite marksmen.

First modern snipers were trained in 16th century Japan as a sub-category of ninja warriors. These were specially trained to cover-up retreating armies. The sniper would lay covered on the ground until a leader of the advancing army came into his firing range. There are several confirmed records of such (mostly unsuccessful) attempts. The rifles used were of huge caliber, but poor accuracy.

France's Louis XIV trained elite riflemen to shoot armored knights. Their gun weighed more than nine kg (20 lbs), and shot a 28 grams (1 oz) lead ball fast enough to kill through plate armor. Some authorities claim that they, alone, made heavy cavalry (knights) obsolete.

Timothy Murphy was a rifleman in Daniel Morgan's Virginia riflemen in 1777. He shot and killed General Simon Fraser of the British army. Murphy was said to have taken the shot at roughly 460 m (500 yards ), astounding at the time. He was using the renowned Kentucky rifle . The death of General Fraser caused the British advance to falter and the rebels to win the battle.

During the pivotal Battle of Trafalgar, on October 21, 1805, as the British flagship HMS Victory locked masts with the French Redoutable, a sniper's bullet struck Admiral Horatio Nelson in the spine. Nelson was carried below decks and died as the battle that would make him a legend was ending in favour of the British.

In the Napoleonic Wars, the British copied colonial weapons and tactics in a limited number of rifle companies. They dressed (unsportingly) in green to avoid visibility, and were instructed to shoot enemy officers. Rifleman Thomas Plunkett of the 1st Battalion, 95th Rifles is remembered for shooting General Colbert at a range of between 200 and 600 metres during the Peninsula war. He used a Baker rifle.

Colonel Hiram Berdan was the commanding officer of the 1st and 2nd US Sharpshooters. Although snipers were held with low regard by both sides during the Civil War, under his tutelage, skilled Union marksmen were trained and equipped with the .52 caliber Sharps Rifle . It has been claimed that Berdan's units were responsible for killing more enemy than any other unit in the Union Army.

On May 9, 1864 during the Battle of Spotsylvania Court House, Sgt. Grace of the 4th Georgia Infantry, sniped Major General John Sedgwick at the then incredible distance of 730 m (800 yrds), with a British Whiteworth target rifle. The death of Sedgwick, a corps commander, caused administrative delays in the Union's attack, leading to Confederate victory. Before Sedgwick was shot, he was advised by his men to take cover, and his last words were "They couldn't hit an elephant at this distance". The popular story that he said "They couldn't hit an elephant at this dist—" happens to be an urban legend – he finished his sentence and was shot a few minutes later.

Simo Häyhä ( December 17, 1906 – April 1, 2002) of Finland is regarded as the most effective sniper in the history of warfare. Using a relatively primitive Mosin-Nagant Model 28, Häyhä sniped 542 Soviet Union soldiers in Winter War from November 30, 1939 to March 6, 1940, when he was seriously wounded.

Suko Kolkka was also a Finnish sniper during the Winter War, who sniped approximately 400 Russians, as well as another 200 with a submachinegun. Due to the superb quality of Finnish snipers, the Russians lost men at a rate of 40:1. At the end of the Winter War a Soviet General is said to have bitterly quipped, "We gained 57,000 km² (22,000 square miles) of territory. Just enough to bury our dead."

Vasily Zaitsev was a Russian sniper who rose to prominence during the Battle of Stalingrad, credited with sniping 242 German soldiers. He became a folk hero for killing the German master sniper instructor Major Thorvald, in an extended sniper-countersniper duel. However, there are debates as to whether Thorvald actually existed, or was the invention of Soviet propaganda writers. Zaitsev was the main subject in the movie Enemy at the Gates, a fictionalized account of sniper-warfare in the Battle of Stalingrad.

Mila Mikhailovna Pavichenko was a female Ukrainian sniper with 309 confirmed kills during World War II.

Gunnery Sergeant Carlos Hathcock of the United States Marine Corps sniped 93 North Vietnamese soldiers during the Vietnam war. He is the subject of two biographies, Marine Sniper and Silent Warrior.

Delta Force snipers Gary Gordon and Randy Shughart were both killed in action during the Battle of Mogadishu. It is estimated that together they sniped over 100 Somalis. Both men received the Congressional Medal of Honor, posthumously, for their actions

11 See also

Military occupations

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