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The Seebeck coefficients, represented as S, are non-linear, and depend on the conductors' absolute temperature, material, and molecular structure.
If the temperature difference between the two nodes of a thermocouple is small,
and a voltage ΔV is seen at the terminals, then the thermopower of the entire thermocouple is defined as:
This can also be written in relation to the electric field E and the temperature gradient ∇T, by the equation
In semiconductors the sign of the thermopower is used to decide whether the charge carriers are electrons or holes.