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The elder futhark script (named after the initial phonemeIn spoken language, a phoneme is a basic, theoretical unit of sound that can distinguish words (i. changing one phoneme in a word can produce another word). A phoneme may well represent categorically several phonetically similar or phonologically related of the first six rune names in the following list, which are in bold font) consists of twenty four runes, often arranged in three rows of eight. The first row consists of fehu, urūz, Žurisaz (thurisaz), ansuz, raidō, kaunan, gebō, and wunjō. The second row consists of haglaz, naudiz, īsaz, jera, īwaz, peržō, algiz, and sōwilō. The third row consists of tīwaz, berkanan, ehwaz, mannaz, laukaz, ingwaz, dagaz, and finally ōžalan.
The name of each rune is a meaningful word in Proto-GermanicProto-Germanic the proto-language believed by scholars to be the common ancestor of the Germanic languages, includes among its descendants Dutch, Yiddish, German, English, Afrikaans, Norwegian, Old Norse, Swedish, Icelandic and Danish. There are no extant, chosen to represent the sounds of the rune itself. Fehu, for example, means cattle. Most rune names stood for their rune because of the first phoneme in the name, with a few exceptions. Algiz, elk, for example, was used because the last "z" sound in the word (believed to be similar to the r sound known to EnglishThe English language is a West Germanic language, originating from England. It is the third most common "first" language (native speakers), with around 402 million people in 2002. English has lingua franca status in many parts of the world, due to the mil speakers from the name of the famous composer DvorįkDvorak can refer to: Antonin Dvorak, the Czech classical composer August Dvorak, co-creator of the Dvorak Simplified Keyboard Dvorak Simplified Keyboard, an alternative to the QWERTY keyboard layout John C. Dvorak, computer industry columnist Dvorak Card) was the sound of the rune, which sound was never used in a word-initial position.
No distinction is made in surviving runic inscriptions between long and short vowels, although such a distinction was certainly present in the spoken languages of the time. As Proto-Germanic evolved into its later language groups, the words assigned to the runes and the sounds represented by the runes themselves began to diverge somewhat, and each culture would either create new runes, rename or rearrange its rune names slightly or even stop using obsolete runes completely to accommodate those changes. Thus, the Anglo-Saxons had several specialty runes to represent diphthongIn phonetics, a diphthong is a vowel combination usually involving a quick but smooth movement from one vowel to another, often interpreted by listeners as a single vowel sound or phoneme. While "pure" vowels, or monophthongs are said to have one target ts unique to (or at least prevalent in) their dialect. Scholars also therefore believe that the reason the younger futhark used by the Vikings usually has sixteen runes, while the elder futhark used by much earlier Germanic tribes in contact with the Roman Empire60 and 400 with major cities. During this time only Dacia and Mesopotamia were added to the Empire but were lost before 300. The Roman Empire is the term conventionally used to describe the Roman state in the centuries following its reorganization under t is usually described as having twenty four, is that the reduction dramatically reflects six hundred years of sound changes in the North Germanic language group.
Runes have been been used for divination in modern times, based on often symbolic interpretations of these names. If one drew fehu from a bag of runes, for example, it might be interpreted as meaning that one was destined to encounter not a herd of cattle, but rather money (mobile wealth).
Although Norse literature is full of references to runes, it nowhere contains specific instruction on divination or magic. There are two sources on divination which are rather vague descriptions and may not refer to runes. The first one appears in Tacitus' Germania, which describes "signs" chosen in groups of three. The second one appears in Rimbert where he describes how a renegade Swedish king Anund Uppsale first brings a Danish fleet to Birka, but then changes his mind and asks the Danes to draw lots. This drawing of lots was quite informative in telling them that attacking Birka would bring bad luck and that they should attack a Slavic town.
This has not stopped modern authors from extrapolating from what little specifics exist into entire systems of divination. Perhaps the most popular rune author is Ralph Blum , whose Book of Runes comes with a set of runes on ceramic tiles which is loosely based on the runes of the elder futhark. Another author is Edred Thorsson , whose best known books are Futhark, Runelore and Runecaster's Handbook (The Well of the Wyrd). But there are, however, some inscriptions containing clues, such as the Franks Casket (AD 700) panel.
The Havamal describes the god Odin receiving runes by hanging himself as a self- sacrifice:
Althought the Etruscan alphabet is usually a good candidate for runes' origin, that's it, South- or Central European derivation, there have been considerations whether the glyphs' geometrical shape originate from tree branches and notches, or whether they were created for practical purpose when carving in wood. Carved signs are also used in non-phonentical writing such as landmarks (marking paths) and family- or house mark s (marking possession). Also, the characteristic construction and the need of reservation of non-similar signs among families, was needed to identify cattle-stocks. Simple lines and bars are easily recognized and prohibits wounding the ear. There is, however, also a possibility that those signs might be derived from marks, which in turn may be derived from runes.
A third theory is that the runes originates from the Middle East. The alphabets may be derived from the Latin alphabet but with Nabataean glyphs and phonemes, a variant of the Semitian alphabet . The introduction of runes should therefore perhaps be ascribed Roman legions, that ca AD 200 started to migrate out of Israel. This theory is based on very early runic finds contained on weapons parts ( longbows, triangular arrow head s, etc.), something characteristic for these soldier kinds. (The historical Nabataean kingdom spanned over Jordan, Sinai and South Israel, corresponds to early Arabia.)
A fourth "theory", mentioned here for the sake of curiousity, merely enhances the second theory and suggest that all writing system orginates from (particulary Swedish) proto-runic scripts. This creative idea was introduced by Olaus Rudbeck Sr in Atlantica , but have not yet been verified.
Rune-like alphabets have also existed amongst Finno-Ugric groups, cf. Hungarian "runes", but those are not classified as runes although some may be a derivation. (Unfortunately, it is belived that most of the manuscripts with Hungarian script were destroyed with the introduction of christianity in Hungary, because it was "pagan".) Runes were also used in the Runic calender (usually term Runstav (Runic rod), Prim or Scandinavian calender) that became standard equipment within Northern Europe with the introduction of christianity. The monuments found in Northern America with Runic inscriptions are most likely modern arts and probably derive from the 16th or 20th century.