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Randolph was born in Salem, West Virginia. He attended the public schools, and graduated from the Salem Academy in 1920 and Salem College in 1924. He engaged in newspaper work in Clarksburg, West Virginia in 1924. He was the associate editor of West Virginia Review at Charleston, West Virginia in 1925; head of the department of public speaking and journalism at Davis and Elkins College at Elkins, West Virginia, 1926-1932; and a trustee of Salem College and Davis and Elkins College. He was an unsuccessful candidate for election in 1930 to the Seventy-second Congress, but was elected as a Democrat to the Seventy-third and to the six succeeding Congresses (March 4, 1933-January 3, 1947). He was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection in 1946 to the Eightieth Congress.

Randolph was chairman of the Committee on the District of Columbia (Seventy-sixth through Seventy-ninth Congresses) and the Committee on Civil Service (Seventy-ninth Congress). He was a professor of public speaking at Southeastern University in Washington, D.C., 1935-1953, and dean of School of Business Administration from 1952 to 1958; he was assistant to president and director of public relations, Capital Airlines, Washington, D.C., February 1947-April 1958. He was elected in a special election on November 4, 1958, as a Democrat to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Matthew M. Neely . He was reelected in 1960, 1966, 1972 and 1978 and served from November 5, 1958, to January 3, 1985. He did not seek reelection. In the Senate, Randolph was chairman, Committee on Public Works (Eighty-ninth through Ninety-fifth Congresses), Committee on Environment and Public Works (Ninety-fifth and Ninety-sixth Congresses. He was best known for sponsoring an amendment to the Constitution many times which would grant citizens aged between 18 and 21 the right to vote. The amendment was finally ratified in 1971, as the Twenty-Sixth Amendment.

Randolph died in Saint Louis, Missouri.

Randolph wrote a book along with James A. Bell called "Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen . . . : A Practical Guide to Public Speaking." which was published in 1939.