1.4 SacrificeSacrifice is the practice of offering food, or the lives of animals or people to the gods, as an act of propitiation or worship. The term is also used metaphorically to describe selfless good deeds for others. Theologies of sacrifice The theology of sacri

Human and animal sacrifices accompanied many important Inca occasions. Each day witnessed many sacrifices day to celebrate the sun's appearance. Others were offered when a new imperial ruler was chosen. The most important occasions would call for offerings of up to two hundred children. Even the Chosen Women from the Sun Temple sometimes were chosen for sacrifice. Pains were taken to ensure that human offerings exhibited no marks or imperfections. The Incas would often gather sacrificial victims from defeated lands as a form of taxation.

According to legend, a father selected his ten year old daughter Tanta Carhua for sacrifice to the Incan Emperor. The reportedly physically perfect child was sent to the Emporer in Cuzco, which held feasts and parades in honor of Tanta's courage. She was buried alive in a tomb in the Andean mountainsSee also architecture with non-sequential dynamic execution scheduling (ANDES). Please note that the geology in this article reflects views from the first decade of the 20th century. It is a good example of the descriptive geology of that time, but becaus. This legend formed the basis of the stricture for physical perfection in child sacrifice victims. When chosen, they would meet the emperor and enjoy a fete in their honor. The Incas believed that the child victim would become a god after death. Before being buried alive, the child would drink chicha, an alcoholic beverage, apparently to dull the senses. In the victim's honor, Inca priests would conduct ceremonies as the spirit left the earth.

1.5 Festivals

The Inca calendar had months of 30 days, with each month having its own festival.

The months and celebrations of the calendar are shown below:

Gregorian month	Peruvian month	Translation
January	Huchuy Pacoy	Small ripening
February	Hutan Pocoy	Great ripening
March	Paucar Warai	Garment of flowers
April	Ariway	Dance of the young maize
May	Aimuari	Song of the harvest
June	Inti Raimi	Festival of the sun
July	Anta Situwa	Earthly purification
August	Capac Situwa	General purification sacrifice
September	Caya Raimi	Festival of the queen
October	Uma Raimi	Festival of the water
November	Ayamarca	Procession of the dead
December	Capac Raimi	Magnificent festival

1.6 Burial Practices

The Incas believed in reincarnation. Those who obeyed the Inca rule, ama sua, ama llulla, ama chella (do not steal, do not lie, do not be lazy), went to live in the Sun's warmth. Others spent their eternal days in the cold earth.

The Incas also believed in mummifying prominent personages. The mummies would be provided with an assortment of objects which were to be taken into the pacarina. Upon reaching the pacarina, the mummies or mallqui would be able to converse with the area's other ancient ancestors, the huacas. The mallquis were also used in various rituals or celebrations. The deceased were generally buried in a sitting position.

SOURCE: Andean Worlds, Kenneth Andrien. 2001.

2 Society

2.1 Childhood

Incan childhood was harsh by modern standards. When a baby was born, the Incas would wash the child in cold water and wrap it in a blanket. Soon after, the baby was put in a pit dug in the ground like a playpen. By about age one, the Incas expected the baby to crawl and walk independently. At age two, the child was ceremonially named and were considered to have left infancy. From then on, boys and girls were expected to help around the house. Misbehaving during this time could result in very severe punishment. At age 14, boys received a loincloth in a ceremony to mark their manhood. Boys from noble families were subjected to many different tests of endurance and knowledge. After the test, they received earplugs and a weapon, whose color represented rank in society.

2.2 The Organization of the Empire

The Incan empire was a feudalistic society in which all levels of society paid tribute to their leader, known as the Inca. The Inca was a god-like figure that was carried around in great style and wore a special headdress that communicated his superior power. He claimed power by virtue of having been decended from the gods (in the style of the divine right of kings). Below the Inca there were four main classes of citizens.

First were the Royal family, nobles, military leaders and religious leaders. These people controlled the Incan Empire, and many of them lived in Cuzco. Next were the governors of the four provinces of the Incan Empire. These people had great powers; they could organize troops, collect tribute and establish law and order. Below the governers were the local officials. These officials were responsible for less important judgments, such as settling disputes and giving out punishments. Lowest on the social ladder were the peasants -- the majority of the population.

2.3 The start of the Incan Empire

The Incas originated in the mountains of Peru, expanding to control the entire Andes region of South America. The Incan civilization reached its peak in the 15th century, under the rule of Pachacuti. Among their architectural achievements were stone cities, mud houses and fine roads. They also built bridges made of rope to cross steep gorges.

2.4 The Incan Emperors

The first known Incan emperor was Manco Capac, who ruled from about 1200 AD. Details of many of the earlier emperors were lost in the Spanish Conquest.

• AD1200 ~ Manco Capac
• Sinchi Roca
• Lloque Yupanqui
• Mayta Capac
• Capac Yupanqui
• Inca Roca
• Yahuar Huacac
• Viracocha Inca
• 1438 – 1471 ~ Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui
• 1471 – 1493 ~ Tupac Inca Yupanqui
• 1493 – 1527 ~ Huayna Capac
• 1527 – 1532 ~ Huascar
• 1532 – 1533 ~ Atahualpa

2.5 Expanding the Incan Empire

The emperor Pachacuti was the most powerful man in the ancient Americas, sending many expeditions to conquer new lands. If his opponents surrendered they were well-treated. If not, they received little mercy. As Pachacuti won more lands, his armies became larger and more successful. Pachacuti was a skilled diplomat. He would send messages to the leaders of the lands to be conquered telling them the benefits of joining the Incas. If they gave up their land, they would be in control of their local area but they would be within the Incan Empire. Their sons would be given a full education and they would be treated as nobles.

The Incas had a well-trained and well-organized army. When the Incas conquered a place, people gave tribute in the form of work to help develop the empire. The Incas encouraged people to join the empire, and treated them well for doing so. Postal services were set up with runners ( chasqui s) who delivered messages as tied knots ( quipus) and packages between major cities. News could be broadcast at speeds of up to 125 miles a day through the chasqui system. The Incas exchanged populations in conquered areas. This was part of the creation of the " Inca highway," which was used for wars, transportation of goods, and other purposes. The Incas belief in ( manay) provided for exchanging populations and ideas in the empire. The whole Incan Empire was linked by many good roads and bridges.

2.6 Organizing the Empire

The Incas were told what job they had to do, how much land they could farm and where they could and could not travel (see planned economy). In return for keeping these rules, the Incas were well looked after. If an Inca was caught stealing but it was not proven, the local official would be punished for "not doing his job properly." The Incan Empire helped those unable to work. Wives were given an allowance of wool. The Incan people had to work on their empire's and their god's land before their own ( mita). The Incas had no freedom to travel, and sons always had to follow their fathers' trade.

The Incan Empire was divided into four parts. All parts of Incan life was supervised by Incan officials. The Inca Empire developed no form of traditional writing, relying instead on the transmission of information passed on by mouth and khipu, knotted strings that have yet to be deciphered.

2.7 Music

The Incas played drums and on woodwind instruments including flutes, pan-pipes and trumpets made of shell and ceramics.

2.8 Arts and Crafts

The Incas produced detailed craftwork ranging from images of gods to items of every day use. The abstract geometric forms and highly stylized animal representation in ceramics, wood carvings, textiles and metalwork was a part of the Incan culture. They made beautiful objects of gold. The Chosen Women made fine cloth woven with intricate designs.

3 Food, Currency, Clothing and Medicines

3.1 Farming

At the peak of Incan civilization in 1400, the farmers of the Incan Empire were widespread, from Colombia through Chile. They cultivated food crops on dry pacific coastlines, high on the slopes of the Andes, and deep in the lowland Amazon jungle. It is estimated that the Incas grew around seventy crop species. A key to the Incas' farming success was their footpath and road system, which allowed distribution of their crops over large distances. The Incas' main crops were potatoes, sweet potatoes, maize, chili peppers, cotton, tomatoes, peanuts, an edible root called oca, and a grain known as quinoa. They had terraced fields and were one of the first peoples in the Americas to use irrigation systems. The Incas used simple digging sticks and plows. They used llamas for wool, ropes, blankets and meat.

Coca was reserved for the elite.

Incan leaders kept records of what each family in the empire produced.

3.2 Hunting

The Incas used arrows and blow pipes to hunt and kill animals. They hunted deer, pumas and fish. Their style of hunting was to encircle an animal with many hunters and then close in on it.

3.3 Food

The Incas used maize to make chicha, a beer-like beverage they drank in large quantities.

The Incan diet primarily consisted of vegetables, supplemented less frequently with stews and porridges, often of guinea pigs and llamas.

3.4 Currency

Incan society was based on a barter system. Workers got labor credit, which was work paid for in goods or food. It was well used in their day.

3.5 Clothing

Incan men wore a sleeveless, knee-length tunic sometimes with a cape. The women had baggy clothes and often wore sandals. Both sexes often wore shoulder-length shawls clasped with a pin on cold days.

The Incas liked to decorate themselves, but social status determined what colors and quality of cloth an Incan could wear. The Incas used different headdresses to symbolize different tribes.

Incan men wore a lot of jewelery, but women wore very little. The rich wore gold bracelets and huge earplugs. Warriors wore necklaces made of their victims' teeth.

3.6 Medicine

The Incas made many discoveries in medicine and cures. They used quinine to treat malaria, they performed successful skull surgery. Coca leaves were used to lessen hunger and pain. The Chasqui (messengers) ate coca leaves for extra energy. Another interesting remedy was to cover boil bark from a pepper tree and place it over a wound while still warm.

4 The Spanish Conquest

4.1 The Background to the Conquest of the Incas

War broke out amidst the Incan Empire when Huayna Capac became emperor. Some sources show that he may have been just five years old. Huayna upset many people and liked to be cruel. The war between the people lasted 12 years.

Rumors spread around the Incan Empire about strange "bearded men" who lived in "a house in the sea" and had "thunder and lightning in their hands." These strange men started killing off many of the Incan soldiers with the diseases that they brought.

By the time Huayna Capac had died, the Empire was on its last legs. There was a power struggle between Huayna's two sons. One of them, Huascar, was named the new emperor. Huascar was regarded as ugly, bad mannered and half-mad. He came close to murdering his sister and mother. He forced his sister to marry him. Huayna Capac's favorite son, Atahualpa, was given the Northern Territory known as the Kingdom of Quito (modern-day Ecuador and southern Colombia). Huascar, whose land area was a faction of Atahualpa's, became very angry.

War broke out between the two brothers. It was called The War of the Two Brothers. It is estimated that 100,000 people were killed in this bloodthirsty dispute.

After many struggles, Atahualpa finally defeated Huascar. Atahualpa himself became half-mad and treated the losers terribly. Many had stones dropped on their backs to cripple them. Nearly 1500 members of the royal family were cut up in front of Huascar. Huascar's children were also cut up. Fetuses were ripped from wombs. Bodies were stuck on spikes for display.

Atahualpa paid a terrible price. His empire had been terribly shaken and weakened. At this critical moment, the "strange bearded men" arrived. The final scene was now in place for the end of the Incan Empire. These strange bearded men turned out to be Francisco Pizarro's men from Spain who captured Atahualpa and his nobles on November 16, 1532.

4.2 The Actual Conquest

Pizarro and his men found a camp at which Atahualpa was staying. Pizarro sent a messenger to Atahualpa asking to meet, to which Atahualpa agreed. But when Atahualpa arrived, the meeting place looked deserted.

Vicente de Valverde appeared. Through a translator, he told Atahualpa that he and his people must convert to Christianity, and if he refused he would be considered an enemy of the church and of Spain.

Atahualpa refused. The Spanish opened fire and attacked the Inca soldiers who were there with Atahualpa. In the struggle, Atahualpa was captured and taken prisoner. Atahualpa was not treated badly and he was allowed to stay in contact with his people.

Atahualpa made a deal with Pizarro. He agreed to fill a room with gold and another one with silver in return for his release. They shook hands, but Pizarro had no intention of letting Atahualpa go because he needed the emperor's influence over the Inca people to keep order once the Spanish started to invade.

Huascar was still alive. Atahualpa feared that as long as Huascar lived, Pizarro might not need him, for Huascar would make a better puppet ruler than him. Atahualpa feared for his life and so ordered the Huascar's execution.

That day, Pizarro and the Spanish decided to charge Atahualpa with 12 crimes, the most important being attempting to revolt against the Spanish, practicing idolatry and murdering Huascar. Atahualpa was found guilty of all 12 charges, and was sentenced to be burned.

That night, Pizarro decided to execute Atahualpa. After being led to the place of execution, Atahualpa begged for his life. Valverde told Atahualpa that if he agreed to convert he would reduce the sentence. Atahualpa agreed to be baptized and was strangled instead of being burned. Atahualpa died on August 29, 1533. His death was the beginning of the end of the Incan Empire.

The situation went quickly downhill. Pizarro had Atahualpa's brother Toparca named Inca and used him as a "puppet ruler" until he died unexpectedly. Everything then fell apart. Remote parts of the Incan Empire revolted, and in some cases they joined with the Spanish against the Incas.

Lands and crops were neglected and the Incas experienced a famine unlike anything they had seen before. The Incas, now wise to the Spanish motives of robbing the empire of its gold and silver, started looting and hiding their treasures.

Disease also contributed to the empire's downfall. European diseases unfamiliar to Incas were steadily killing the populace in droves. Gold was plentiful and prices soared. Grain became more valuable than the Spaniards' precious gold. The great Incan civilization, as it was known, no longer existed.

4.3 After the Spanish Conquest

The Incan Empire was brought down by fewer than 200 of Pizarro's men and 27 horses. Pizarro and later Spaniards repressed the Incas and their traditions, while destroying their farming system. The Spanish made less of the cultivation of most of the Incas' crops, such as quinoa and important root crops.

The languages of the empire, Quechua and Aymara, were chosen by the Catholic church to evangelize in the Incan area. They even taught them to Indians who had never been subject to the empire. Today they are the most extended Amerindian languages.

The Spanish used the mita work service in their profit for the mining of silver at Potosí.

The later rebellion led by Tupac Amaru is the source of the names of 20th century South American guerrillas Movimiento Revolucionario Túpac Amaru ( MRTA), and the Uruguayan Tupamaros.

The Inca planned economy (and Maoism) are the inspiration of today's Peruvian guerrilla Sendero Luminoso.

5 See also:

• yanacona
• El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega
• History of Peru
• Machu Picchu
• Rainbow flag#Tawantinsuyu

6 External links

• Tupac Amaru, the Life, Times, and Execution of the Last Inca.
• Machu Picchu, A Photo Gallery

South America South American history Peru

<Hide>