1.3.1 Cycle of Violence

Frequently, the term is used to describe specific violent and overtly abusive incidents, and legal definitions will tend to take this perspective. However, when violent and abusive behaviors happen within a relationship, the effects of those behaviors continue after these overt incidents are over. Advocates and counselors will refer to domestic violence as a pattern of behaviors, including those listed above.

Lenore Walker presented the model of a "Cycle of Violence" which consists of three basic phases:

Honeymoon Phase:Characterized by affection, apology, apparent end of violence.

Tension Building Phase:Characterized by poor communication, tension, fear of causing outbursts,

Acting-out Phase:Characterized by outbursts of violent, abusive incidents.

Although it is easy to see the outbursts of the Acting-out Phase as abuse, even the more pleasant behaviors of the Honeymoon Phase serve to perpetuate the abuse.

2 Cause

Domestic violence is caused specifically by the choice to engage in violent or abusive behavior against a partner, sibling or child. A variety of factors can lead to that choice, but only in the case of truly uncontrollabe compulsions can those factors eliminate the potential to choose nonviolent and nonabusive behaviors.

3 Purpose

Whilst purposelessness might be a better heading for this section, a causalistThe philosophical concept of Causality or Causation refers to the set of all particular "causal" or "cause-and-effect" relations. The Differentia (distinguishing properties/characteristics) of Causality which all causal relations have in common: The relat view is that the purpose of domestic violence is not primarily to hurt or harm the victim. Rather, it is to gain or maintain power and control over the victim.

Note that power in a relationship is often a matter of perception. A person may perceive themselves to be put-upon when a less involved observer would disagree.

4 Gender

It is impossible to have a discussion of domestic violence that does not include a discussion of the role gender does or doesn't have to play in the problem. Sometimes, the discussion of gender can overwhelm any other topic, due to the degree of emotion with which the discussion of gender can attain.

Attention to domestic violence began in the women's movement as concern about wives being beaten by their husbands, and has remained a major focus in the modern feministFeminism is a social theory and political movement primarily informed and motivated by the experience of women. While generally providing a critique of social relations, many proponents of feminism also focus on analyzing gender inequality and the promoti movement, particularly under the label "violence against women". The world's first domestic violence shelter was founded by Erin PizzeyErin Pizzey (born February 19, 1939 in China, duaghter of a diplomat) became internationally famous for having started the first Women's Refuge (called women's shelter in the US) in the modern world during the 1971. She began in the Goldhawk Road, West Lo, in ChiswickChiswick is a suburb of London, England in the London Borough of Hounslow. It is one of the best known suburbs in west London and lies approximately halfway between central London and Heathrow Airport. Generally perceived amongst Londoners as a desirable, London, who has since expressed her dismay at how the issue has become a gender-political football, openly supporting the men's rights movement and their claim that domestic violence has nothing to do with patriarchy and is simply violence against vulnerable intimates. Political opposition to the feminist movement helped push interest in discussion of women who were violent with their husbands and partners.

Conflicts have erupted regarding whether men are more abusive than women, whether men's abuse of women is worse than women's abuse of men, how and whether resources for abused women should be made available to abused men, etc. Ahimsa, a UK based DV project, says: "Research findings consistently report that over 90% of domestic violence is perpetrated by men within heterosexual relationships.". Women's Aid (the UKs leading domestic violence charity) say "Crime statistics and research both show that domestic violence is gender specific - usually the perpetrator of a pattern of repeated assaults is a man. Women experience the most serious physical and repeated assaults." The Council of Europe found in a 19921992 is a leap year starting on Wednesday. Events January January The Internet Society is formed. January 1 Boutros Boutros-Ghali of Egypt replaces Javier Perez de Cuellar of Peru as United Nations Secretary-General January 1 George H. Bush becomes the fi study that 1 in 4 women experience domestic violence over their lifetimes and between 6-10% of women suffer domestic violence in a given year. The British Crime Survey found for the year 2001-2 81% of dv victims were women and 19% were men. Every minute in the UK, the Police receive a call from the public for assistance for domestic violence. However, they estimate that only around 35% of dv is actually reported. A 2002 Women's Aid study found that 74% of separated women suffered from post-separation violence. 42% of all female homicide victims compared with 4% of male homicide victims, were killed by current or former partners in England and Wales in the year 2000- 2001. This equates to 102 women, an average of 2 women each week (Home Office, 2001). When it comes to domestic violence towards children, research in the UK by the NSPCC indicated that "most violence occurred at home (78 per cent) with mothers being primarily responsible in 49 per cent of cases and fathers in 40 per cent of cases."[3]

Studies have been carried out to explore these issues, and results have seemed somewhat contradictory. A problem in conducting such studies is the amount of silence, fear and shame that results from abuse within families and relationships. Another is that abusive patterns can tend to seem normal to those who have lived in them for a length of time. Similarly, subtle forms of abuse can be quite transparent even as they set the stage for further abuse seeming normal. Finally, inconsistent definition of what domestic violence is makes strong conclusions hard to reach when compiling the available studies. Both men and women have been arrested and convicted of assaulting their partners in both heterosexual and homosexual relationships. The bulk of these arrests has been men being arrested for assaulting women, but that has been shifting somewhat over time and clearly arrest records are not the whole story. Actual studies of behaviour show that whilst half of male/female intimate violence is best described as mutual brawling, a quarter is the male attacking the female and the remaining quarter being females attacking their male partner. Determining how many instances of domestic violence actually involve male victims is difficult. Male domestic violence victims may be reluctant to get help for a number of reasons (see this article) (Article checked August 8, 2004.) A man who calls for help may even risk being arrested as the "perpetrator" even though he was the victim. Of course these points remain entirely speculative, and unsubstantiated by research evidence.

The general consensus seems to be that male on female domestic violence is more likely to result in serious injury or death, whereas female on male, which, under the definition used by the UK Government, includes preventing the father seeing the children, is more likely to result male suicide. Men on average have more upper body strength and socialization that predisposes them to resort to violence more than women do, and that can give them a higher average lethality than women. However, women determined to prevent injury at the hands of male partners can use weapons to equalize whatever deficit in physical power which may be present, and can also use social constraints against men hitting women, even in self-defense, to provide them with sufficient lethality to be dangerous in conflict situations. Women also are as well equipped to use psychological violence that forms a pattern of coercive and controlling behaviour (to use the Women's Aid definition given above). Women are also equally capable of using a proxy, which could possibly further skew the results (since a proxy murder would not be seen as a form of domestic violence.)

Whilst female murder rates against males have dropped since domestic violence has been taken seriously, the reverse cannot be said to be true, suggesting that if female on male domestic violence were taken more seriously more men would find means of release or escape other than explosive and lethal violence.

Gender roles and expectations can and do play a role in abusive situations, and exploring these roles and expectations can be helpful in addressing abusive situations, as do factors like race, class, religion, sexuality and philosophy. None of these factors cause one to abuse or another to be abused.

4.1 Domestic violence in homosexual relationships

Historically domestic violence has been seen as a family issue and little interest has been directed at violence in homosexual relationships. It hasn't been until recently, as the gay rights movement has brought the issues of homosexual people into public attention, when research has been started to conduct on homosexual relationships. Several studies have indicated that partner abuse among homosexual couples (of both women and men) is relatively similar in both prevalence and dynamics to that among heterosexual couples. Homosexuals, however, face special obstacles in dealing with the issues that some researchers have labelled "the double closet": not only are homosexuals often discriminated against and dismissed by police and social services, they are also often met with lack of support from their peers who would rather keep quiet about the problem in order not to attract negative attention toward the homosexual community. Also, the supportive services are mostly designed for the needs of heterosexual women and do not always meet the needs of homosexuals.

5 Statistics

It is estimated that every year in the United States, approximately 3 million women are assaulted by their partner. Many of these incidents go unreported to authorities due to the shame and fear associated with domestic violence. In 1998, of the approximately 1.5 million violent crimes committed between intimate partners, over 876,000 of the victims were women, and over 835,000 were men. Of the approximately 1,830 murders committed against intimate partners in 1998, 3 out of 4 of the victims were women. In homes where domestic violence occurs, children in the home are at a 300% greater risk of being abused. Between 3 and 5 billion dollars are spent annually for medical expenses related to domestic violence. Also, approximately 100 million dollars is lost by businesses annually though lost productivity, sick leave and absenteeism due to domestic violence.

5.1 Allegations of domestic violence

Allegations of domestic violence are frequent in post-divorce/separation situations. The consequences of such allegations can be serious for the alleged perpetrator since occupation of the home and custody of the children may be at stake.

6 Response to Domestic Violence

The response to domestic violence is typically a combined effort between law enforcement agencies, the courts, social service agencies and corrections/probation agencies. The role of each has evolved as domestic violence has been brought more into public view. Historically, law enforcement agencies, the courts and corrections agencies treated domestic violence as a personal matter. For example, police officers were often reluctant to intervene by making an arrest, and often chose instead to simply counsel the couple and/or ask one of the parties to leave the residence for a period of time. The courts were reluctant to impose any significant sanctions on those convicted of domestic violence, largely because it was viewed as a misdemeanor offense. This mindset of treating family violence as a personal problem of minor consequence permeated the system's response, and potentially allowed the perpetrator to continue acting violently.

Activism, initiated by victim advocacy groups and feminist groups, has lead to a better understanding of the scope and effect of domestic violence on victims and families, and has brought about changes in the criminal justice system's response.

6.1 Background

In 1981, the Domestic Abuse Intervention Project became the first multi-disciplinary program designed to address the issue of domestic violence. This experiment, conducted in Duluth, MN, frequently referred to as the "Duluth Project," involved coordinating the actions of a variety of agencies that deal with domestic situations. The policies and activities of diverse elements of the system, from police officers on the street, to shelters for battered women and probation officers supervising offenders, were coordinated with each other. This program has become a model for other jurisdictions seeking to deal more effectively with domestic violence. More and more jurisdictions are mandating that suspects in domestic violence incidents be arrested if there is probable cause to believe that an assault occurred. Victim advocates are intervening directly with victims by providing them with counseling about the court process, how to obtain and use restraining orders and how to forumulate and implement safety plans. Corrections/probation agencies in many areas are supervising domestic violence offenders more closely, and are also paying closer attention to the victim's needs and safety issues. It should be noted that the "Duluth model" has been criticized for various reasons (see article) (Article checked August 15, 2004) and that a different response may be more appropriate.

6.2 Treatment and Support

Publicly available resources for dealing with domestic violence have tended to be almost exclusively geared towards supporting women and children who are in relationships with or who are leaving violent men, rather than for survivors of domestic violence per se. This has been due to the numeric preponderence of female victims and the perception that domestic violence only affected women. Resources to help perpetators, such as anger management training, are available, though attendees are ordered to pay for their own treatment in order that they should remain accountable for their actions.

6.3 Police

From the perspective of the police, who are often the first to investigate domestic violence incidents, one of the problems is that the definitions of domestic violence include acts that are not themselves crimes. The London Metropolitan Police has nevertheless compiled a list of the crimes [4] which typically can occur when domestic violence occurs. They are:

• Murder/attempted murder
• Manslaughter
• Rape
• Indecent assault
• Grievous bodily harm/wounding
• Actual bodily harm
• Common assault
• Threats to kill
• Affray
• Threatening behaviour
• Harassment
• Blackmail
• False imprisonment
• Kidnapping
• Criminal damage
• Malicious communications
• Witness intimidation
• Obstructing the course of justice
• Conspiracy to pervert the course of justice

6.4 Risk Assessment

Policy in the UK since the start of the millennium has been to make a risk assessment when there is a reported incident of domestic violence in order to determine the likelihood of serious harm or further serious harm occurring, regardless of whether an actual crime has been committed. Further proceedings are then based on the outcome of the risk assessment. Some are concerned at the jurisprudence of this approach, because it allows punitive action to be taken against an alleged prepetrator without recourse to a fair trial. The charity Women's Aid proposes that such risk assessments should always be conducted on fathers who wish to see their children after parental separation even where there has been no history of domestic violence:

Women's Aid is concerned that there is no mention [in a recent government Green Paper] of the development of clear protocols to ensure that these measures [new measures to ensure family continuity] are not used in cases where there is a known history or future risk of domestic violence. [5]

6.5 Well-known Individuals Involved in Documented Reports of Domestic Violence

• O. J. Simpson and Nicole Brown Simpson
• Ryan O'Neal and Farrah Fawcett
• Mike Tyson and Robin Givens
• Tommy Lee and Pamela Anderson
• James Brown
• Ike Turner and Tina Turner
• Tawny Kitaen and Chuck Finley
• Liza Minnelli and David Gest

6.6 Noted accusations of domestic violence

• In the 2004 ROC Presidential Election, President Chen Shuibian caused a furor during the presidential debates on 2004, February 14 by stating that unlike other people he does not easily get angry and beat his wife, referring to widely circulated rumors that candidate Lien Chan abuses his wife Lien Fangyu . Lien Chan has refused to address that accusation, but his wife has called into question Chen's moral character for making this accusation in public for political gain.

6.7 Domestic violence and culture

6.7.1 Wife beating in Islam

Sheikh Muhammad Kamal Mustafa, the imam of the mosque of the city of Fuengirola, Costa del Sol, Spain, in his book 'The Woman in Islam.' writes, among other things, on wife-beating in accordance with Sharia law. "The [wife-]beating must never be in exaggerated, blind anger, in order to avoid serious harm [to the woman]." He adds, "It is forbidden to beat her on the sensitive parts of her body, such as the face, breast, abdomen, and head. Instead, she should be beaten on the arms and legs," using a "rod that must not be stiff, but slim and lightweight so that no wounds, scars, or bruises are caused." Similarly, "[the blows] must not be hard." [6]

Mustafa noted in his book that the aim of the beating was to cause the woman to feel some emotional pain, without humiliating her or harming her physically. According to him, wife-beating must be the last resort to which the husband turns in punishing his wife, and is, according to the Qur'an, Chapter 4, Verse 34, the husband's third step when the wife is rebellious: First, he must reprimand her, without anger. Next, he must distance her from the conjugal bed. Only if these two methods fail should the husband turn to beating.

Sheikh Yousef Qaradhawi, head of the European Council for Fatwa and Research , has advocated non-painful wife-beating: "it is permissible for him to beat her lightly with his hands, avoiding her face and other sensitive parts. In no case should he resort to using a stick or any other instrument that might cause pain and injury."

Dr. Muhammad Al-Hajj, lecturer on Islamic faith at the University of Jordan (Amman) states: "Hard beatings are those that leave marks on the body or on the face. Thus, beating on the face is prohibited, because the face is a combination of the features of beauty, as it is said. It is forbidden to beat the face, it is forbidden to administer blows that leave fractures or wounds this is what our sages have said in their books."

6.7.2 Hindu/Indian culture

See also:

• Suttee
• dowry

6.8 Further reading

• Linda G. Mills, Linda Mills, Insult to Injury: Rethinking Our Responses to Intimate Abuse, Princeton University Press, September 2003, hardcover, 304 pages, BooksEnthsiast.com

6.9 See also

Women's Aid

6.10 External links

• BBC DV Fact File
• Hot Peach Pages: Domestic Violence Agencies World-Wide
• EarthWords: Domestic Violence Information in over 70 Languages (most link names in English)
• EarthWords: Domestic Violence Information in over 70 Languages (most link names in target language)
• Stop Abuse For Everyone's resource list (resources for men, women, gay and lesbian, elderly, teens, etc..)
• Blain Nelson's Abuse Pages (abuse website created by the author of the bulk of this article)
• Honor Killings in Palestine
• Battered Men (domestic violence against men)
• Domestic Violence Against Men In Colorado (domestic violence against men)
• Articles about domestic abuse and violence
• Spousal and Domesic Violence
• DesertLight Journal Tracks articles in traditional and new media related to the issue

Abuse Feminism Crimes Miscellaneous disorders

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